Maulana Abul Kalam Azad is one of the most celebrated figures of anti-colonial Indian nationalism. He served as the first education minister of independent India under the Prime Ministership of Jawaharlal Nehru. He is credited for modern educational reform and a champion of composite Indian nationalism. His birth anniversary is celebrated as National Education Day for his contribution to establishing the Modern Education System of India. This paper tries to understand the ideas of Maulana Azad, tracing a journey from pan-Islamism to anti-colonial nationalism. At no point is it suggested that pan-Islamism, in the eyes of Maulana Azad and other ideologues, contradicted anti-colonial Indian nationalism. Still, it is evident from the life trajectory of Maulana Azad that he became a staunch nationalist in the later part of his political career with a little element of pan-Islamism which shaped his worldview in the early years of his life. This paper tries to highlight the compatibility between the pan-Islamist ideas of Maulana Azad and broader ideas of anti-colonial Indian nationalism, with a focus on the role of religion in his socio-political ideas. The paper is divided into two parts. First part briefly discusses pan-Islamism as a religio-political ideology propagated by leaders like Jamaluddin Afghani and its impact on Maulana Azad. The second part discussed some critical highlights of Maulana Azad’s contribution to the struggle for Indian independence, which would have emphasis on his role as Congress President and trial under sedition.
Pan-Islamism and Indian Nationalism
Pan-Islamism developed as a religio-political ideology in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century seeking the coming together of Muslims of the world. This was not a new concept of Muslim unity across borders, given the already existing concept of “Ummah’. However, the uniqueness of pan-Islamism, as argued by scholars like Nikki R Keddie, was its compatibility with modern nationalist feelings as compared to older traditional concepts of Islamic unity. It was a reaction to western imperialism subjugating the Muslim world.[1]
Jamaluddin Afghani was one of the greatest proponents of pan-Islamism and influenced Muslims across the globe through his teachings. He inspired Maulana Azad, Mohamed Ali, Mukhtar Ansari, Mohammad Iqbal and other political leaders. Afghani reconciled his anti-imperialist teachings with ideas of anti-colonial nationalism for nations under colonial rule of western empires, India being one of them. This was evident in the works of his followers. Inspired by Afghani’s Al Urwa al-wuthq, an anti-imperialist journal published by him, Maulana Azad published writings in Al-Hilal attacking Sir Syed Ahmad Khan for his stand on Turkish Khilafat and emphasised Jihad against those who occupied Dar al-Islam. Maulana Azad defied the ideological contradictions between “Indian Nationalism” and “pan-Islamism”. He was joined by Mukhtar Ansari, Mohamed Ali and other prominent leaders on this issue.[2]
Maulana Azad was forced into internment and sent into confinement in Ranchi for his political activism through Al-Hilal. He and other pan-Islamist leaders like Ali brothers were considered dangerous as World War I started. He was released after three and a half years. As he came out of confinement, other Muslim leaders were chalking out plans to take on the British government because of a harsh treaty imposed on Khalifa, who was considered the spiritual head of the entire Muslim population of the world. In the Non-Cooperation/Khilafat movement, Maulana Azad made significant contributions. He stressed that the Khilafat movement in India had at first been directed at the rights of Khalifa and the Ottoman empire, but now it was plain that the problem of the Khalifa was part of the larger issue of British imperialism. Here he makes it evident that the Khilafat issue, a Muslim issue, is not isolated from the pressing concern of British imperialism. He said, “Khilafat workers must win India’s liberty by means of non-cooperation; only then would they be able to save the Khalifa.”[3] Mushirul Hasan maintains that both pan-Islamism and Indian nationalism were compatible as both had a common goal to eliminate British domination. This overlapping of ideas was evident in everyday protest movements led by Khilafatists and Kisan Sabha members during the height of Non-Cooperation movement.[4]
Maulana Azad treated pan-Islamism as a source to strengthen Indian nationalism. Until the Non-Cooperation/Khilafat movement, he kept stressing pan-Islamism and its compatibility with Indian nationalism. After the movement was called off, he stopped emphasising the importance of pan-Islamism.
Historian Rizwan Qaiser highlighted that Maulana Azad treated pan-Islamism as a source to strengthen Indian nationalism. Until the Non-Cooperation/Khilafat movement, he kept stressing pan-Islamism and its compatibility with Indian nationalism. After the movement was called off, he stopped emphasising the importance of pan-Islamism. Soon he presided over the Indian National Congress (INC) as its youngest president and was drawn towards the INC brand of nationalism. Maulana Azad never saw religion outside the political arena, but he used religion as a tool to unite the masses and as a medium to assert their identity. He tried to find a theological rationale for his politics, which he did with utmost passion and commitment keeping in mind the ultimate ambition of Indian freedom from colonial rule.
Maulana Azad developed a worldview of the Islamic world and presented this to the Indian masses through his writings in journals like Al-Hilal. Maulana Azad belonged to a religious family. His father, Maulana Khairuddin, settled in Mecca and married there. Maulana Azad was born in Makkah. His family moved to India around 1898 after his father had an accident. Notably, Maulana Azad was born into an orthodox Muslim family, and his early career learnings were in Arabic and Persian mediums. He studied Islamic theology, and by 1903 he had completed his education. Only after he realised the relevance of the English language, he started learning it. Maulana Azad developed a religious worldview towards contemporary developments because of his interest and family background.[5]
Maulana Azad had a two-fold challenge ahead of him as he assumed the charge of Congress President in 1940. To lead the anti-colonial struggle against the British while keeping Hindu-Muslim communalism in check. His commitment towards Hindu-Muslim unity can be traced from his inaugural speech as the Congress President in 1923. Maulana Azad was a vocal critic of the Two-Nation theory. Many prominent Muslim organisations and individuals joined him in their criticism for the partition of India. Allah Baksh, Shibli Nomani, Mukhtar Ahmad Ansari, Shaukatuallah Ansari, Azad Muslim Conference, Momin Conference, All Parties Shia Conference etc.
Maulana Azad as Congress President
Maulana Azad served as Congress president for two terms. One in 1923 for a special Congress session and then in 1940 at the Ramgarh session of the Indian National Congress. Between 1923 and 1940s, the mainstream politics in the Indian subcontinent had changed a lot, and Maulana Azad witnessed these changes. On the one hand, mainstream anti-colonial nationalism had become more widespread with the Civil Disobedience movement and political campaigns of mass mobilisation by the Indian National Congress under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. On the other hand, it was also a period of rising communalism and growing differences between Hindus and Muslims, with Muslims feeling alienation from the INC. This process of Muslim alienation started after the abrupt call-off of the Non-Cooperation/Khilafat movement and eventually culminated in the partition of India. Muslim League, under the leadership of Mouhammad Ali Jinnah, claimed to represent the interest of the majority of Muslims and had already been moving towards what later became known as the Lahore Resolution of 1940, arguing for a separate Muslim nation. Maulana Azad had a two-fold challenge ahead of him as he assumed the charge of Congress President in 1940. To lead the anti-colonial struggle against the British while keeping Hindu-Muslim communalism in check. His commitment towards Hindu-Muslim unity can be traced from his inaugural speech as the Congress President in 1923. Maulana Azad was a vocal critic of the Two-Nation theory. Many prominent Muslim organisations and individuals joined him in their criticism for the partition of India. Allah Baksh, Shibli Nomani, Mukhtar Ahmad Ansari, Shaukatuallah Ansari, Azad Muslim Conference, Momin Conference, All Parties Shia Conference etc.[6] His speech at Jama Masjid is witness to his opposition to Two-nation Theory in which he appealed to fellow Muslims, saying, “Muslims should have faith in India and the country is yours. This is what Muslims are for. The fundamental decisions about the country will remain incomplete without Muslims”.[7] These are the words from Maulana Azad’s iconic speech which was given at Jama Masjid in Delhi on Bakrid in 1947.
“Muslims should have faith in India and the country is yours. This is what Muslims are for. The fundamental decisions about the country will remain incomplete without Muslims”.These are the words from Maulana Azad’s iconic speech which was given at Jama Masjid in Delhi on Bakrid in 1947.
Sedition Charges on Maulana Azad
Mahatma Gandhi defined the law of sedition as “the prince among the political sections of the Indian Penal Code designed to suppress the liberty of the citizen”.[8] Maulana Azad was amongst Indian freedom fighters who were charged with sedition for their anti-British stance. Section 124A of Indian Penal Code was used as an instrument by British Raj to criminalise dissent and free speech. Sardar Patel, Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru were other anti-colonialists charged for sedition. Maulana Azad was charged with sedition during the height of the Non-Cooperation/Khilafat Movement. He was arrested in Calcutta in December 1921 for speeches he made in July 1921 and sentenced to one year’s rigorous imprisonment after trial. Maulana Azad refused to defend himself in the trial and pleaded guilty to being “seditious”. It was not the first time that any mainstream political actor claimed himself to be guilty of ‘sedition’. Before Maulana Azad, Mahatma Gandhi when charged with sedition, went on to say that he considered it to be his privilege to be charged with this section.[9]
On Maulana Azad’s political trial, A G Noorani writes, “Azad followed precedent but departed from it consciously at the end and invested the trial with a historical significance. He submitted a written statement, not in defence but in defiance. It remains unexcelled in India and deserves to rank with pronouncements by the accused in great trials in the world’s history since the time of Socrates.”
On Maulana Azad’s political trial, A G Noorani writes, “Azad followed precedent but departed from it consciously at the end and invested the trial with a historical significance. He submitted a written statement, not in defence but in defiance. It remains unexcelled in India and deserves to rank with pronouncements by the accused in great trials in the world’s history since the time of Socrates.”[10] Maulana Azad submitted a written statement before the Court, which is a relevant document to understand his genius in drawing compatibility between Islam and anti-colonial Nationalism. Maulana Azad was charged with sedition for two speeches: one, in a protest meeting against the arrest of Hakim Saeed-ur-Rehman, Jagdamba Parshad, and Ajodhya Parshad. The second speech was during Khilafat/Non-Cooperation agitation. In his written statement, he writes, “I am a Muslim and that is my duty as a Muslim as well. Islam does not acknowledge as legitimate regime a regime that is based on personal rule or by a bureaucracy of paid officials…Islam is a declaration of human rights which preceded French Revolution by eleven hundred years.”[11] He quoted the saying of Prophet Muhammad: ‘if you see a wrong being done, prevent and redress it with your hands; if you cannot do that speak up against it. If you cannot do even that, tell yourself it is wrong.’[12] He asserted that people in India should follow the second course since they cannot right the wrongs of the government. The 30-page written statement that Maulana Azad submitted to the Court is a testimony towards his commitment to the anti-colonial struggle and the role of Islam in this process of liberation of the Indian masses.
Maulana Azad was charged with sedition for two speeches: one, in a protest meeting against the arrest of Hakim Saeed-ur-Rehman, Jagdamba Parshad, and Ajodhya Parshad. The second speech was during Khilafat/Non-Cooperation agitation. In his written statement, he writes, “I am a Muslim and that is my duty as a Muslim as well. Islam does not acknowledge as legitimate regime a regime that is based on personal rule or by a bureaucracy of paid officials…Islam is a declaration of human rights which preceded French Revolution by eleven hundred years.”[11] He quoted the saying of Prophet Muhammad: ‘if you see a wrong being done, prevent and redress it with your hands; if you cannot do that speak up against it. If you cannot do even that, tell yourself it is wrong.’[12] He asserted that people in India should follow the second course since they cannot right the wrongs of the government.
It would be unfair to look at the life of Maulana Azad from a black-and-white perspective, restricting him to boxes of confined ideologies. He was a pragmatic leader who evolved over time, as did his politics. Till his last breath, he remained a staunch nationalist and crusader of Hindu-Muslim unity. He believed in the idea of a Nation which would be home to everyone. While realising his dreams, he took various paths, pan-Islamism being one of them. Like other ideologues of pan-Islamism, his brilliance was that he never saw ideas of pan-Islamism in contradiction to anti-colonial Indian nationalism but both as complementary to each other. Maulana Azad’s journey serves as testimony to the role of religion in shaping political ideologies, giving it a broad contour and not limiting it to creating a divide among the masses.
ENDNOTES
[1] Keddie, Nikki R. 1969. “Pan-Islam as Proto-Nationalism.” The Journal of Modern History, Vol 41, No 1, p. 18
[2] Hasan, Mushirul. 1986. “Pan-Islamism versus Indian Nationalism? A Reappraisal.” Economic and Political Weekly, Vol XXI, No 24, p.1074-1078.
[3] Ibid.
[4] Ibid.
[5] Qaiser, Rizwan. 2018. Resisting Colonialism and Communal Politics – Maulana Azad and the making of the Indian Nation. New Delhi, Manohar Publishers 5. Malik Ram, ‘Theological Basis of Politics’ in Syeda Saiyidain Hameed, ed., India’s Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Indian Council for Cultural Relations, Vikas Publishing House, 1990
[6] . Islam, Shamsul. 2015. Muslims Against Partition: Revisiting the legacy of Allah Baksh and other patriotic Muslims. New Delhi, Pharos Media and Publishing Pvt Ltd
[7] https://indianexpress.com/article/research/why-a-majority-of-muslims-opposed-jinnahs-idea-of-partition-and-stayed-on-in-india-8090835/
[8] https://thewire.in/law/explainer-how-the-sedition-law-has-been-used-in-the-modi-era
[9] Sinha, Chitranshul. 2019. The Great Repression: The Story of Sedition in India. New Delhi, Penguin Viking Publishers
[10] Noorani, A.G. 2006. Indian Political Trials: 1775-1947, New Delhi, Oxford India Paperbacks
[11] Ibid.
[12] Ibid.
Satya Prakash is a Doctoral Training Program Intern at the CSPS